A 5-minute read | sociological perspectives, condensed
Full study notes: Functionalism: The Organic Analogy, Value Consensus and Social Order on histpology.co.uk.
“I have used the analogies, but only as a scaffolding to help in building up a coherent body of sociological induction.”
Herbert Spencer, The Principles of Sociology (1876)
Spencer compared society to a living body. He said this was just scaffolding for thinking, not a literal fact. That comparison became the organic analogy, one of the founding ideas of functionalism.
In a nutshell
Functionalism is a structural theory: it explains behaviour mainly through society’s structure acting on the individual. It is also a consensus perspective: it sees that structure as built on shared values, not conflict. Auguste Comte, Herbert Spencer and Émile Durkheim came up with the idea in the 19th century, to explain what held fast-changing industrial societies together.
Durkheim argued that society holds together through value consensus: broad agreement over shared norms. This is passed on through a collective conscience, built up through socialisation. Talcott Parsons later turned this into the AGIL scheme: society has four basic needs (Adaptation, Goal attainment, Integration, Latency), met by its institutions, which keeps society in a stable balance (equilibrium).
Robert Merton then improved the theory from the inside. He split an institution’s effects into a manifest function (the effect you would expect), a latent function (a hidden, unintended effect) and a dysfunction (a harmful effect). This let functionalism admit that institutions do not always run smoothly.
| Key terms |
| Structural theory: explains behaviour mainly through society’s structure acting on the individual, e.g. functionalism and Marxism. |
| Consensus perspective: sees society as based on shared norms and values, rather than conflict between groups. |
| Value consensus: Durkheim‘s term for broad agreement among members of society over core norms and values. |
| Collective conscience: the shared beliefs and feelings about right and wrong that bind society together, passed on through socialisation. |
| Manifest, latent function and dysfunction: Merton‘s terms for what an institution is meant to do (manifest), a hidden side effect (latent), and any effect that causes harm (dysfunction). |
| Body system | Social institution | Function in society |
| Skeleton | Social structure and law | Holds society together with a stable framework of rules |
| Circulatory system | The economy | Moves money, goods and services around society |
| Nervous system | Education and the media | Coordinates behaviour and communicates shared values |
| Reproductive system | The family | Produces new members and passes on culture |
Figure 1: Spencer’s organic analogy, condensed from The Principles of Sociology (1876).
Evaluating functionalism, fast
- Strength: gives a clear explanation for why most people cooperate rather than compete, most of the time.
- Strength: Durkheim‘s distinction between mechanical solidarity (unity from shared beliefs, typical of simple societies) and organic solidarity (unity from interdependence, typical of complex societies) still helps compare simple and complex societies.
- Strength: Merton‘s manifest function, latent function and dysfunction framework lets functionalism explain unintended harm.
- Weakness: Dennis Wrong (1961) said functionalism paints an “oversocialised” picture of people, leaving little room for choice or resistance.
- Weakness: Marxist sociologists argue that this apparent consensus actually hides the interests of the ruling class, and inequality between social classes.
- Weakness: Sylvia Walby (1990) argues it hides inequality between men and women behind a picture of shared values.
| ANALYSIS — AO2 | EVALUATION — AO3 |
| Functionalism‘s structural, consensus label sets it apart from Marxism (also structural, but based on conflict) and interactionism (which rejects the idea of a fixed social structure). Its big idea, that you cannot explain behaviour without looking at the wider social system, is one that even its critics build on. | Merton‘s changes show functionalism can take criticism on board without falling apart. It works best as an explanation of how shared values keep order, and works less well as a full explanation of a society as unequal and conflict-ridden as any real one. |
| Key Takeaways |
| Functionalism is a structural, consensus perspective, developed by Comte, Spencer and Durkheim. |
| Durkheim‘s value consensus and collective conscience explain how shared values bind society together. |
| Parsons‘ AGIL scheme names four basic needs every society must meet: Adaptation, Goal attainment, Integration and Latency. |
| Merton‘s manifest functions, latent functions and dysfunctions improved functionalism, but Wrong, and Marxist and feminist critics, still challenge its picture of consensus. |
| Check your understanding |
| 1. Explain the difference between a manifest function and a latent function, using one example of your own. You could: choose a familiar institution, such as school, and identify one manifest and one latent function it performs. |
| 2. “Functionalism‘s picture of society is now hopelessly out of date.” To what extent do you agree? You should: name one strength and one weakness from this page, each with a specific thinker, and reach a supported judgement. |
Specification links: AQA 7192 3.1.3 and 3.3.2 (Theory and Methods).