Key Ideas and Theories within Marxism
Marxism is a macro-level theoretical perspective in sociology that views society through the lens of class struggle and economic exploitation. Within the context of families and households, Marxists focus on how these institutions reinforce capitalist inequalities and serve the interests of the ruling class.
Marxism is considered a structural theory because it focuses on the social structures that shape society and influence individual behaviour.
It views society as a system of economic relationships and class struggles, where the ruling class (bourgeoisie) exploits the working class (proletariat).
In the context of families and households, Marxists examine how family structures and relationships contribute to the perpetuation of class inequality and the maintenance of the capitalist system.
By understanding the economic functions of different social institutions, Marxists aim to reveal the underlying mechanisms of exploitation and control through six key theories
Inheritance of Property:
Marxists argue that the family serves to perpetuate class inequality by passing on private property from one generation to the next.
Key Theorist: Friedrich Engels emphasised the role of the family in maintaining wealth within the bourgeoisie through inheritance.
Ideological Control:
Families are seen as institutions that socialise children into accepting the dominant capitalist ideology, thus maintaining the status quo.
Key Theorist: Louis Althusser introduced the concept of Ideological State Apparatuses (ISAs), which includes the family as a tool for spreading dominant ideology.
Unit of Consumption:
Families are viewed as units of consumption that contribute to the profits of capitalists by purchasing goods and services.
Key Theorist: Zaretsky highlighted how the family supports capitalism by acting as a consumer unit, absorbing surplus products.
Reproduction of Labour Power:
Families are responsible for reproducing and nurturing the next generation of workers.
Key Theorist: Engels noted that women in the family perform unpaid domestic labour, which supports the capitalist economy by reproducing labour power.
Study of Key Marxist Thinker: Arlie Hochschild
Arlie Hochschild’s Contributions:
Arlie Hochschild’s views primarily fit within the feminist perspective, with a focus on the intersection of gender, work, and family life. Her work often critiques the traditional Marxist approach for not fully addressing gender dynamics and the emotional labour performed within families.
Emotional Labour:
Key Concept: Hochschild introduced the concept of emotional labour, which refers to the management of emotions to create a publicly observable facial and bodily display. This concept highlights the often overlooked emotional work done within families, particularly by women.
Example: Hochschild’s seminal work, “The Managed Heart: Commercialization of Human Feeling” (1983), explores how emotional labour is required in both the workplace and the home, where women often perform the majority of emotional and caring roles.
The Second Shift:
Key Concept: In her book “The Second Shift” (1989), Hochschild examines how women, even when employed outside the home, continue to bear the brunt of household responsibilities and child-rearing tasks. This concept criticises the notion that paid employment alone has liberated women.
Impact: The “second shift” describes the phenomenon where women work a full day at their paid job and then come home to a “second shift” of domestic work, highlighting the continued gender inequality within the family structure.
Time Bind:
Key Concept: In “The Time Bind: When Work Becomes Home and Home Becomes Work” (1997), Hochschild investigates how work and family life have become increasingly intertwined, leading to a blurring of boundaries and increased stress, particularly for women.
Critique of Capitalism: Hochschild’s work illustrates how capitalist demands for productivity and efficiency encroach on family life, further complicating gender dynamics and emotional well-being.
Evaluation of Hochschild’s Views:
Intersection with Marxism:
Hochschild extends Marxist analysis by incorporating the significance of emotional labour and gender dynamics within the family. While Marxism focuses on economic exploitation, Hochschild highlights how capitalism also exploits emotional and caring labour, which is often unpaid and performed by women.
Feminist Perspective:
Hochschild’s work aligns with feminist critiques of Marxism by emphasising the need to address gender inequality within the family. Her analysis underscores the importance of recognising both the economic and emotional dimensions of labour and how they intersect to reinforce gender roles and inequality.
Interactionist Perspective:
Hochschild’s focus on emotional labour and the subjective experiences of family members aligns with the interactionist perspective. She emphasises the importance of understanding the micro-level interactions and the emotional work that shapes family life.
In summary, Arlie Hochschild’s views fit within the feminist perspective and extend the Marxist analysis by incorporating gender dynamics and emotional labour. Her work provides a nuanced understanding of how capitalism exploits not only economic but also emotional and caring labour within families, highlighting the intersection of gender, work, and family life.
Changes in the Marxist Perspective on Families and Households Over Time
Over time, the Marxist perspective on families and households has evolved, reflecting changes in society and the economy.
Feminist Contributions:
Feminist Marxists have contributed to the understanding of how gender inequality intersects with class inequality within the family.
Key Theorists: Heidi Hartmann argued that patriarchy and capitalism are intertwined systems of oppression.
Margaret Benston highlighted the role of women’s unpaid domestic labour in supporting the capitalist economy.
Globalisation and Neoliberalism:
Contemporary Marxists examine the impact of globalisation and neoliberal policies on families, such as the increased commodification of family life and the rise of precarious work.
Key Theorist: David Harvey’s work on neoliberalism explores how economic policies affect family structures and labour relations.
Technological Change:
The rise of digital capitalism has led Marxists to investigate how technology and digital labour influence family life and social reproduction.
Key Theorist: Ursula Huws examines the impact of digitalisation on labour and family life in her work on “The Making of a Cybertariat”.
Application to Modern Family Dynamics
The Marxist perspective can be applied to understand contemporary family dynamics in various ways:
Economic Inequality:
Marxists analyse how economic inequality affects family structures, such as the widening gap between wealthy and poor families and the impact of austerity measures on working-class families.
Consumer Culture:
Families are seen as targets of consumer culture, where the media and advertising industries encourage consumption patterns that benefit capitalists.
Example: The pressure on families to buy the latest gadgets, toys, and clothing for their children reinforces capitalist consumption.
Domestic Labour:
The unpaid domestic labour performed within families is viewed as essential to the functioning of the capitalist economy.
Example: The work of caring for children, the elderly, and the sick, often done by women, supports the reproduction of labour power without direct compensation.
Housing and Property:
Marxists investigate how housing policies and property ownership perpetuate class inequalities.
Example: The rise in property prices and the lack of affordable housing disproportionately affect working-class families.
Global Labour Migration:
The movement of workers across borders for economic reasons affects family structures and relationships.
Example: Migrant workers often leave their families behind to seek employment, creating transnational family arrangements.
Additional Perspectives on the Marxist View of Families and Households
Critical Realism:
Critical realists argue that while Marxism provides valuable insights into the economic functions of families, it fails to account for the underlying social structures and mechanisms that shape family life.
Key Theorists: Roy Bhaskar: Known for his work “A Realist Theory of Science” (1975), Bhaskar laid the foundations of Critical Realism.
Margaret Archer: Her book “Realist Social Theory: The Morphogenetic Approach” (1995) is a significant contribution to Critical Realism.
Study: Archer’s study on “Culture and Agency: The Place of Culture in Social Theory” (1988) explores how cultural factors influence social structures and individual actions.
Symbolic Interactionism:
Symbolic interactionists critique Marxism for its macro-level focus, arguing that it overlooks the micro-level interactions that shape family life.
Key Theorists: George Herbert Mead: His work “Mind, Self, and Society” (1934) is foundational to Symbolic Interactionism.
Herbert Blumer: Expanded on Mead’s ideas and coined the term “Symbolic Interactionism” in his work “Symbolic Interactionism: Perspective and Method” (1969).
Study: Blumer’s study on “Society as Symbolic Interaction” (1969) examines how individuals create and maintain social order through symbolic interactions.
Exchange Theory:
Exchange theorists argue that family relationships are based on cost-benefit analyses, where individuals seek to maximise rewards and minimise costs.
Key Theorists: George Homans: Introduced Social Exchange Theory in his work “Social Behavior as Exchange” (1958).
Peter Blau: Expanded on Homans’ ideas and focused on the role of social exchange in social structures in his work “Exchange and Power in Social Life” (1964).
Study: Thibaut and Kelley’s study on “The Social Psychology of Groups” (1959) explores how individuals evaluate the costs and benefits of social interactions.
Developmental Theories:
Developmental theorists highlight the stages of family life and the changes that occur over time.
Key Theorists: Émile Durkheim: His work “The Division of Labor in Society” (1893) discusses how social structures evolve over time.
Talcott Parsons: His book “The Social System” (1951) examines how societies develop and modernize.
Study: David Apter’s study on “The Politics of Modernization” (1965) analyzes how political systems influence societal development.
Criticism and Evaluation of the Marxist Perspective on Families and Households
Overemphasis on Economic Determinism:
Criticism: Critics argue that Marxism overemphasises the role of economic factors in shaping family life, neglecting other social and cultural influences.
Functionalist Perspective: Functionalists argue that families perform essential functions for society, such as socialisation and emotional support, which are not solely determined by economic factors. They contend that the family contributes to social stability and cohesion beyond merely serving economic interests.
Neglect of Agency:
Criticism: Marxism is seen as deterministic, suggesting that individuals are simply products of economic structures without considering human agency and individuality.
Interactionist Perspective: Interactionists emphasise the importance of individual agency and the subjective experiences of family members. They argue that Marxism fails to consider the dynamic and negotiated nature of family life, where individuals actively create and maintain their relationships. This perspective highlights the micro-level interactions that shape family dynamics.
Overlooking Family Diversity:
Criticism: Critics argue that Marxism does not adequately address the diversity of family forms and experiences in contemporary society.
Postmodern Perspective: Postmodernists highlight the importance of recognising the diversity and fluidity of family roles and structures in a postmodern world. They argue that Marxism often overlooks the varied and complex family arrangements that exist today, such as same-sex families, single-parent families, and blended families.
Limited Focus on Gender and Patriarchy:
Criticism: Although feminist Marxists have addressed the intersection of gender and class, traditional Marxism has been criticised for its limited focus on gender inequality and patriarchy within the family.
Feminist Perspective: Feminists argue that Marxism overlooks the specific ways in which patriarchal structures within families contribute to women’s oppression. They emphasise that gender relations within the family are not solely a by-product of economic relations but also involve distinct power dynamics that need to be addressed.
Neglect of Positive Functions:
Criticism: Marxism often overlooks the positive functions that families can perform for individuals and society, such as emotional support and socialisation.
Functionalist Perspective: Functionalists argue that families play a crucial role in maintaining social stability and cohesion, which Marxism tends to downplay. They highlight the importance of the family’s role in providing care, nurturing, and socialising children, as well as offering emotional support to its members.
Romanticisation of Pre-Capitalist Societies:
Criticism: Marxism sometimes romanticises pre-capitalist societies, assuming that family relations were more equitable before the rise of capitalism.
Feminist Critique: Feminist scholars, such as Arlie Hochschild, argue that gender inequalities and patriarchal structures existed in pre-capitalist societies as well. They caution against idealising past family forms without recognising the historical persistence of gender oppression.
In summary, while the Marxist perspective provides valuable insights into the role of families and households in perpetuating class inequality and supporting the capitalist system, it has been criticised for its economic determinism, neglect of agency and diversity, limited focus on gender, and overlooking positive functions. Other sociological perspectives, such as functionalism, interactionism, postmodernism, and feminism, offer complementary and alternative views that address these limitations, providing a more comprehensive understanding of family dynamics in contemporary society.
TEST YOUR UNDERSTANDING
1 What is the Marxist view on the inheritance of property within families?
2 Which key theorist emphasized the role of the family in maintaining wealth within the bourgeoisie?
3 What is the concept of ideological control in the Marxist perspective on families?
4 Who introduced the concept of Ideological State Apparatuses (ISAs) that includes the family?
5 How do Marxists view the family as a unit of consumption?
6 Which key theorist highlighted the family’s role as a consumer unit supporting capitalism?
7 What is the reproduction of labour power according to Marxists?
8 Who noted that women in the family perform unpaid domestic labour that supports the capitalist economy?
9 Why is Marxism considered a structural theory?
10 How have feminist Marxists contributed to the understanding of the family?
11 Which key theorist argued that patriarchy and capitalism are intertwined systems of oppression?
12 What impact do globalisation and neoliberalism have on families according to contemporary Marxists?
13 Which key theorist’s work on neoliberalism explores its impact on family structures?
14 How does digital capitalism influence family life according to Ursula Huws?
15 What is the Marxist analysis of economic inequality within families?
16 How do Marxists view families in the context of consumer culture?
17 What is the Marxist perspective on unpaid domestic labour?
18 How do housing policies and property ownership perpetuate class inequalities according to Marxists?
19 What is the impact of global labour migration on family structures according to Marxists?
20 How does Arlie Hochschild’s concept of emotional labour fit within the Marxist analysis of families?